Of the language learning theories discussed in this chapter, which do you most agree with? Do you find that cognitive and sociocultural theories are incompatible? If not, discuss some ways drawing on different theories can help inform your instruction.
Chapter 3 Language Learning and Teaching
Wright, W. E. (2019). Foundations for teaching English language learners: Research, theory, policy, and practice (3rd ed.). Philadelphia: Caslon Publishing.
How do students develop proficiency in a new language?
How can different theories of language learning inform effective practice?
How do you develop your own personal approach to providing effective language and content instruction for English language learners?
Guiding Questions
B. F. Skinner (Behaviorist perspective)
Children learn L1 through imitation and positive reinforcement
Common view in 1940s and 1950s
Noam Chomsky (Innatist perspective)
Children have an innate ability to learn language
Language acquisition device (LAD) enables children to figure out universal grammar and generate infinite unique utterances
Everett
Language is the handmaiden of culture
New breakthroughs in understanding the origin of language and of first and second language acquisition
First Language Acquisition Theories
Second Language Acquisition Theories
Behaviorism
Traditional cognitive approaches
The innatist perspective
The cognitive/developmental perspective (psychological theories)
The sociocultural perspective
Second Language Acquisition Theories Cognitive Approaches to SLA
Interested in what is happening inside the brain of the language learner
Direct challenge to behaviorism
Influenced by Chomsky’s theories (late 1970s)
Cognitive approaches to SLA
Monitor model (Krashen)
Interaction hypothesis (Long)
Comprehension output hypothesis (Swain)
Noticing hypothesis (Schmidt)
Processability theory (Pienemann)
Input processing model (VanPatten)
Transfer from L1 to L2
Monitor Model (Krashen, 1980s)
Second Language Acquisition Theories Cognitive Approaches to SLA
Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
Natural Order Hypothesis
Monitor Hypothesis
Input Hypothesis
Affective Filter Hypothesis
Monitor model
Monitor Model (Krashen, 1980s)
Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
Because of the complexity of language, the vast majority is acquired, rather than consciously learned
Second Language Acquisition Theories Cognitive Approaches to SLA
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Language Acquisition
Subconscious process
Language Learning
Conscious process
Results in knowing about the language
Results in knowing the language
Monitor Model (Krashen, 1980s)
Natural Order Hypothesis
We acquire the parts of language in a predictable order
Natural order appears to be immune to teaching
Monitor Hypothesis
We can use learned language to monitor what we acquire and correct errors
Internal correction, self-correction
“a little language teacher in our heads”
Can make a small contribution to accuracy; acquisition is responsible for fluency and most of our accuracy
Second Language Acquisition Theories Cognitive Approaches to SLA
Monitor Model (Krashen, 1980s)
Input (Comprehension) Hypothesis
We acquire language when we obtain comprehensible input
i+1: the key to comprehensible input and acquisition
i=a student’s current level of proficiency
+1=input that is just slightly above that level
We move from i to i+1 by understanding input containing i+1
We acquire language by understanding messages, not by conscious learning and memorizing grammar rules and vocabulary
Second Language Acquisition Theories Cognitive Approaches to SLA
Monitor Model (Krashen, 1980s)
Affective Filter Hypothesis
Affective filter
Anxiety, low self-esteem, or a sense that the student is not a member of the language group
Controls how much comprehensible input gets through to the learner
A major goal in language teaching and learning is to “lower” the affective filter to maximize comprehensible input
When the filter is “down” and appropriate comprehensible input is presented (and comprehended), acquisition is inevitable.
Second Language Acquisition Theories Cognitive Approaches to SLA
Monitor Model (Krashen, 1980s)
Critiques of Krashen’s theories
Do not necessarily provide guidance about what should be directly taught and what is naturally acquired
Difficulty of identifying a strict order of acquisition of forms
The constructs i and +1 cannot be operationalized with any degree of exactness
Oversimplification of complex processes in second language acquisition (SLA)
Downplaying of the importance of production
Nonetheless, Krashen’s theories have inspired a great amount of research and led to new theories
Second Language Acquisition Theories Cognitive Approaches to SLA
Interaction Hypothesis (Long)
Interaction is essential for SLA to occur
Input is made comprehensible through modified interaction
Learners need opportunities to interact with other speakers and reach mutual comprehension
Comprehensible Output (Swain)
Comprehensible input alone is insufficient; comprehensible output is also needed to facilitate language acquisition
Speaking forces learners to confront the limits of their L2 ability and pushes them to find better ways to get their message across
Second Language Acquisition Theories Cognitive Approaches to SLA
Noticing Hypothesis (Schmidt)
Learners cannot acquire specific language features in the input unless they notice them
The importance of awareness and attention
Processability Theory (Pienemann)
Sequence in which learners acquire certain language features depends on how easy they are to process
The features at the beginning or end within a sentence are easier to process than those in the middle
Some features are acquired in the same sequence despite the different progress rates of learners; others acquired in different sequences, according to when they were processed.
Second Language Acquisition Theories Cognitive Approaches to SLA
Input Processing Model (VanPatten)
Looks at how learners make sense out of input and how they get linguistic data from it
Learners must have access to input and interaction with other speakers of L2 they are learning
Learners always process input for meaning first and rely on content words before anything else to get that meaning
Newly processed input leads to changes in the learner’s developing linguistic system
Accommodation and restructuring
Output processing: how learners make use of their acquired implicit knowledge in conversations with others
Second Language Acquisition Theories Cognitive Approaches to SLA
Transfer from First Language to Second Language
Positive transfer
Students can take the content-area knowledge and literacy skills they gained in their L1 and transfer them to their L2
Negative transfer (interference)
ex: Applying L1 syntax rules to English
Students’ knowledge and literacy skills in their L1 is a strength that facilitates academic and English language development
Teaching for transfer: enables students to draw on the knowledge they have in their L1
Second Language Acquisition Theories Cognitive Approaches to SLA
Focus on the sociocultural context surrounding the learner that facilitates the learning process
New terminology
Not yet widespread, nor consistent in usage
Second Language Acquisition Theories Sociocultural Perspectives on Language Learning and Teaching
| Traditional cognitive approaches | Sociocultural approaches |
| First/native/primary language | Home language |
| ELL | Emergent bilingual |
| English as a second language | English as an additional language/a new language |
Sociolinguistic contributions
Began in the late 1960s
Hymes’s notion of communicative competence provides the basis for communicative language teaching (CLT) and content-based instruction (CBI)
Research on nonstandard varieties of language
Inequities for speakers of these varieties in schools
Help educators understand
The dynamics of the relationship between English and home languages
The implications for structuring language and content-area instruction programs best suited for ELLs
Second Language Acquisition Theories Sociocultural Perspectives on Language Learning and Teaching
Zone of Proximal Development and scaffolding
Vygotsky’s influence of language teaching in the 1990s
Learning is a social activity (activity theory)
Knowledge is constructed through interaction and collaboration with others
Zone of proximal development (ZPD)
A domain or metaphoric space where children can reach a higher level of knowledge and performance with the support (scaffolding) of an adult or other more knowledgeable person
Second Language Acquisition Theories Sociocultural Perspectives on Language Learning and Teaching
Zone of Proximal Development and scaffolding
Different from Krashen’s input hypothesis (i+1)
The teacher and students co-construct knowledge based on interactions in a given sociocultural context
Different from Long’s psycholinguistic interaction hypothesis
The focus is on the conversations themselves through which learning occurs
Collaboration and interactions as key to language learning and teaching
Teachers’ role as skilled experts who interact and collaborate with students, and carefully plan and scaffold instruction within the ZPD of their students
Second Language Acquisition Theories Sociocultural Perspectives on Language Learning and Teaching
Language socialization research
Ochs and Schieffelin (1984)
Language socialization
the process by which individuals acquire the knowledge and practices that enable them to participate effectively in a language community
Language and cultural learning are inseparable
Teachers are not just teaching ELLs a new language but they are also socializing them into a community of English language speakers in their classes, programs, and schools
Second Language Acquisition Theories Sociocultural Perspectives on Language Learning and Teaching
Bilingual and multilingual pluralist perspectives
Four guiding principles for making decisions about policies, programming, curriculum, instruction, assessment, and accountability from a bilingual perspective (de Jong, 2011)
Striving for equity
Affirming linguistic and cultural identities
Promoting developmental bilingualism
Structuring for integration
Second Language Acquisition Theories Sociocultural Perspectives on Language Learning and Teaching
Bilingual and multilingual pluralist perspectives
Bilingual education programs
Use two languages for instructional purposes
Not all programs embrace bilingual perspectives
Bilingual perspective
Embraced by teachers working with bilinguals in any program
Considers translanguaging to be natural and normal
Monolingual/compartmentalized perspective
Reluctant to allow use of home languages in the classroom
Strict separation of languages in bilingual education
Second Language Acquisition Theories Sociocultural Perspectives on Language Learning and Teaching
Bilingual and multilingual pluralist perspectives
Holistic biliteracy framework (Escamilla et al, 2013)
Teachers place the two languages side by side for instruction and assessment and document students’ trajectories toward biliteracy.
The Bridge (Beeman and Urow, 2013)
Teachers bring the two languages together strategically and intentionally to promote cross-linguistic transfer
Translanguaging guide for educators (García et al., 2016)
Recognizes positive transfer between English and home language
Translanguaging as pedagogical practices that use bilingualism as a resource
Second Language Acquisition Theories Sociocultural Perspectives on Language Learning and Teaching
All teachers share the responsibility for helping ELLs develop their proficiency in English and their ability to use oral and written English for academic purposes across content areas
Content teachers teach lessons with both language and content objectives
ESL/bilingual teachers/specialists and content-area teachers can collaborate
In schools without designated language teachers, content teachers are responsible for the role
All Teachers Are Language Teachers
Traditional Second Language Teaching Approaches and Methods
Approaches
An overarching philosophy of second language instruction
Methods
A set of procedures for delivering second language instruction
Predominant from the 1840s to the 1940s
Based on the way Latin was traditionally taught
Students analyze and memorize rules of grammar, then translate sentences between the two languages
Not based on any theory and has no advocates, but is widely used
Traditional L2 Teaching Approaches and Methods Grammar-Translation Method
The late 1930s and early 1940s (World War II)
Influenced by behaviorism, structural linguistics
Language learning was viewed as mechanical habit formation
Dialogue memorization and drills focused on particular language structures
Students had difficulty moving from their memorized dialogues to real-life communication
Still apparent in many language teaching materials
Traditional L2 Teaching Approaches and Methods Audiolingual Method
The late 1970s and 1980s
Application of Krashen’s theories
Providing comprehensible input in an enjoyable context where students naturally acquire the language
Five stages of language acquisition
Preproduction → early production → speech emergence → intermediate → advanced
Limitations
Lacking a clear focus and guidance for teachers
Leaving too much to chance in terms of learning vocabulary and grammatical forms
Traditional L2 Teaching Approaches and Methods Natural Approach
Favored approach in the field since the 1980s
Based on the notion of communicative competence
Learning the language to actually communicate in the target language with other speakers
Emphasis on
authentic meaningful communication and learning as creative instruction
providing grammar instruction—a “focus on form”—within the communicative context of a particular academic subject
Traditional L2 Teaching Approaches and Methods Communicative Language Teaching
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A form of CLT that focuses on teaching students to successfully communicate about the content area
Continuum of content-based approaches
Bilingual, ESL, and content-area teachers with ELLs in their classes receive training in sheltered instruction
Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA)
Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP)
Traditional L2 Teaching Approaches and Methods Content-Based Instruction
Content-area instruction by ESL teachers
Language development
Sheltered instruction by content-area teachers
Making content-area concepts comprehensible to ELLs
Not designed specifically for language teaching and learning, but well suited for language classrooms
Whole language
Emphasizes teaching reading strategies and skills within the meaningful context of whole stories, poems, or other texts
Multiple intelligences
To maximize learning according to the particular set of intelligences a child may have: linguistics, logical/ mathematical, spatial, musical, kinesthetic, etc.
Cooperative learning
The use of small groups within which students collaborate to solve problems or complete academic tasks
Traditional L2 Teaching Approaches and Methods Whole Language, Multiple Intelligences, and Cooperative Learning
Developed by Paulo Freire in the 1960s
Focuses on liberating oppressed students through transformative education
Importance recognized by many educators
Helps ELLs understand and confront unequal power relations as they learn English and academic content
Rejects the “banking” model of education
Teachers simply make deposits of essential knowledge and skills into the heads of students
Involves
Problem posing, reflective thinking, knowledge gathering, and collaborative decision making
Traditional L2 Teaching Approaches and Methods Critical Pedagogy
No single method or approach is applicable to every language classroom
The context of the classroom and the needs of the students should be the starting point
Teachers can use the following guiding questions:
What are the students’ strengths and needs?
What are the instructional goals?
What is likely to be challenging about these goals for these students?
What strategies can help address these challenges?
How will you know whether these strategies are effective?
Traditional L2 Teaching Approaches and Methods Beyond Approaches and Methods
Personal approach
Teachers should try out different methods and approaches
They should be flexible and creative, drawing on their own beliefs, values, principles, and experiences to adapt the methods and approaches they use to the realities of the classroom
Core principles include:
Engage all learners in the lesson
Make learners the focus of the lesson
Provide maximum opportunities for student participation
Be tolerant of learners’ mistakes
Develop learners’ confidence
Respond to learners’ difficulties and build on them
Traditional L2 Teaching Approaches and Methods Beyond Approaches and Methods
Whether one takes a cognitive or sociocultural view of language development, researchers and educators seem to agree on the need for students to receive comprehensible input and to engage in meaningful interactions with other speakers of the target language.
Summary
When teachers know their students well and understand the sociocultural contexts, they can draw on their knowledge of language teaching and learning theories, methods, and approaches to inform their own principled approach to providing the type of learning environment that builds on their students’ strengths and addresses their unique needs.
Summary