Infants appear to be able to imitate happy, sad, and surprised facial expressions very early in life. If an infant makes a facial expression recognizab

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION IN HUMAN INTERACTION

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NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION IN HUMAN INTERACTION

E I G H T H

E D I T I O N

Mark L. Knapp The University of Texas at Austin

Judith A. Hall Northeastern University

Terrence G. Horgan University of Michigan, Flint

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Nonverbal Communication in Human Interaction, Eighth Edition Mark L. Knapp, Judith A. Hall and Terrence G. Horgan

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BRIEF CONTENTS

PREFACE xv

PART I AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF NONVERBAL

COMMUNICATION 1

C H A P T E R 1 Nonverbal Communication: Basic Perspectives 3

C H A P T E R 2 The Roots of Nonverbal Behavior 29

C H A P T E R 3 The Ability to Receive and Send Nonverbal Signals 59

PART I I THE COMMUNICATION ENVIRONMENT 89

C H A P T E R 4 The Effects of the Environment on Human Communication 91

C H A P T E R 5 The Effects of Territory and Personal Space on Human Communication 123

PART I I I THE COMMUNICATORS 151

C H A P T E R 6 The Effects of Physical Characteristics on Human Communication 153

v

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PART IV THE COMMUNICATORS’ BEHAVIOR 197

C H A P T E R 7 The Effects of Gesture and Posture on Human Communication 199

C H A P T E R 8 The Effects of Touch on Human Communication 231

C H A P T E R 9 The Effects of the Face on Human Communication 258

C H A P T E R 1 0 The Effects of Eye Behavior on Human Communication 295

C H A P T E R 1 1 The Effects of Vocal Cues That Accompany Spoken Words 323

PART V COMMUNICATING IMPORTANT MESSAGES 357

C H A P T E R 1 2 Using Nonverbal Behavior in Daily Interaction 359

C H A P T E R 1 3 Nonverbal Messages in Special Contexts 395

REFERENCES 421

NAME INDEX 493

SUBJECT INDEX 508

vi BRIEF CONTENTS

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CONTENTS

PREFACE xv

PART I AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF NONVERBAL

COMMUNICATION 1

C H A P T E R 1 Nonverbal Communication: Basic Perspectives 3

Perspective 1: Defining Nonverbal Communication 8 Processing Nonverbal Information 9 Awareness and Control 10

Perspective 2: Classifying Nonverbal Behavior 10 The Communication Environment 11 The Communicators’ Physical Characteristics 11 Body Movement and Position 12

Perspective 3: Nonverbal Communication in the Total Communication Process 14

Repeating 15 Conflicting 15 Complementing 18 Substituting 19 Accenting/Moderating 19 Regulating 19

Perspective 4: Historical Trends in Nonverbal Research 21

Perspective 5: Nonverbal Communication in Everyday Life 25

Summary 27

vii

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C H A P T E R 2 The Roots of Nonverbal Behavior 29

The Development of Nonverbal Behavior across Evolutionary Time 31 Evidence from Sensory Deprivation 32 Evidence from Infants 37 Evidence from Twin Studies 40 Evidence from Nonhuman Primates 44 Evidence from Multicultural Studies 52

Summary 57

C H A P T E R 3 The Ability to Receive and Send Nonverbal Signals 59

Development and Improvement of Nonverbal Skills 61

Is It Good to Have More Accurate Knowledge of Nonverbal Communication? 64

Measuring the Accuracy of Decoding and Encoding Nonverbal Cues 65 Standardized Tests of Decoding Ability 68

Personal Factors Influencing the Accuracy of Decoding Nonverbal Cues 71 Self-Appraisals and Explicit Knowledge of Nonverbal Cues 72 Gender 73 Age 73 General Cognitive Ability 74 Other Personal Correlates 75 Substance Abuse 77 Culture 78

Task Factors Affecting Nonverbal Decoding Accuracy 78

Characteristics of Accurate Nonverbal Senders 79 Putting Decoding and Encoding Together 82

On Being an Observer of Nonverbal Communication 83 The Fallibility of Human Perception 85

Summary 86

PART II THE COMMUNICATION ENVIRONMENT 89

C H A P T E R 4 The Effects of the Environment on Human Communication 91

Perceptions of Our Surroundings 94 Perceptions of Formality 94 Perceptions of Warmth 95 Perceptions of Privacy 96 Perceptions of Familiarity 96

viii CONTENTS

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Perceptions of Constraint 96 Perceptions of Distance 96

Reacting to Environments 97

Perceptions of Time 98

The Natural Environment 100

Other People in the Environment 104

Architectural Design and Movable Objects 105 Color 108 Sound 111 Lighting 113 Movable Objects 114 Structure and Design 116

Regulating Environments and Communication 121

Summary 122

C H A P T E R 5 The Effects of Territory and Personal Space on Human Communication 123

The Concept of Territoriality 123

Territoriality: Invasion and Defense 125

Density and Crowding 129 The Effects of High Density on Human Beings 131 Coping with High Density 132

Conversational Distance 133 Sex 137 Age 137 Cultural and Ethnic Background 138 Topic or Subject Matter 139 Setting for the Interaction 140 Physical Characteristics 140 Attitudinal and Emotional Orientation 140 Characteristics of the Interpersonal Relationship 141 Personality Characteristics 141

Seating Behavior and Spatial Arrangements in Small Groups 142 Leadership 143 Dominance 144 Task 144 Sex and Acquaintance 145 Introversion–Extraversion 147 Conclusion 147

Summary 148

CONTENTS ix

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PART III THE COMMUNICATORS 151

C H A P T E R 6 The Effects of Physical Characteristics on Human Communication 153

Our Body: Its General Attractiveness 154 Dating and Marriage 156 On the Job 159 Persuading Others 160 Self-Esteem 161 Antisocial Behavior 161

The Power of Physical Attractiveness: Some Important Qualifications 162 The Effects of Interaction 162 The Effects of Context 163 Stereotypes Are Not Always Valid 164 Attractiveness over Time 164

Our Body: Its Specific Features 165 Attractiveness and the Face 165 Judgments of the Face 167 Body Shape 169 Height 174 Body Image 177 Body Color 178 Body Smell 179 Body Hair 182

Our Body: Clothes and Other Artifacts 186 Functions of Clothing 188 Clothing as Information About the Person 190 Effects of Clothing on the Wearer 190 Clothing and Personality 191 Artifacts and Body Decorations 192

Summary 194

PART IV THE COMMUNICATORS’ BEHAVIOR 197

C H A P T E R 7 The Effects of Gesture and Posture on Human Communication 199

Speech-Independent Gestures 201

Speech-Related Gestures 211 Referent-Related Gestures 212 Gestures Indicating a Speaker’s Relationship to the Referent 212

x CONTENTS

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Punctuation Gestures 214 Interactive Gestures 214

Gesture Frequency 216

The Coordination of Gesture, Posture, and Speech 219 Self-Synchrony 219 Interaction Synchrony 222

Summary 229

C H A P T E R 8 The Effects of Touch on Human Communication 231

Touching and Human Development 232

Who Touches Whom, Where, When, and How Much? 234

Different Types of Touching Behavior 237

The Meanings and Impact of Interpersonal Touch 241 Touch as Positive Affect 241 Touch as Negative Affect 241 Touch and Discrete Emotions 242 Touch as Play 242 Touch as Influence 243 Touch as Interaction Management 244 Touch as Physiological Stimulus 244 Touch as Interpersonal Responsiveness 244 Touch as Task Related 245 Touch as Healing 245 Touch as Symbolism 247

Contextual Factors in the Meaning of Interpersonal Touch 249

Touch Can Be a Powerful Nonconscious Force in Interaction 250

Self-Touching 253

Summary 256

C H A P T E R 9 The Effects of the Face on Human Communication 258

The Face and Personality Judgments 258

The Face and Interaction Management 259 Channel Control 260 Complementing or Qualifying Other Behavior 260 Replacing Spoken Messages 260

The Face and Expressions of Emotion 261 Display Rules and Facial Emotion Expression 262 The Facial Emotion Controversy 266 Measuring the Face 268

CONTENTS xi

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Measuring Emotion Recognition 274 Emotions Inferred from the Face 278

Physiology and the Face 285 Internalizers and Externalizers 285 Facial Expression and Health 285 Facial Feedback 286

The Social Impact of Facial Expressions 289

Summary 293

C H A P T E R 1 0 The Effects of Eye Behavior on Human Communication 295

Gaze and Mutual Gaze 296

Functions of Gazing 297 Regulating the Flow of Communication 298 Monitoring Feedback 300 Reflecting Cognitive Activity 301 Expressing Emotions 301

Communicating the Nature of the Interpersonal Relationship 306

Conditions Influencing Gazing Patterns 309 Distance 309 Physical Characteristics 310 Personal Characteristics and Personality 310 Psychopathology 313 Topics and Tasks 314 Cultural and Racial Background and Racial Attitudes 317

Pupil Dilation and Constriction 318

Summary 321

C H A P T E R 1 1 The Effects of Vocal Cues That Accompany Spoken Words 323

The Relative Importance of Channels 324

The Ingredients and Methods of Studying Paralanguage 326

Vocal Cues and Speaker Recognition 330

Vocal Cues and Personality 333

Vocal Cues and Group Perceptions 336

Vocal Cues and Judgments of Sociodemographic Characteristics 337 Sex 337 Age 339 Social Class or Status 339 Characteristics of Recipients 339

xii CONTENTS

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Vocal Cues and Emotion 341

Vocal Cues, Comprehension, and Persuasion 346 Vocal Cues, Comprehension, and Retention 347 Vocal Cues and Persuasion 348

Vocal Cues and Turn Taking in Conversations 349 Turn Yielding 350 Turn Requesting 350 Turn Maintaining 351 Turn Denying 351

Hesitations, Pauses, Silence, and Speech 351 Location or Placement of Pauses 352 Types of Pauses 352 Reasons Why Pauses Occur 353 Influence and Coordination within the Dyad 354 Silence 354

Summary 355

PART V COMMUNICATING IMPORTANT MESSAGES 357

C H A P T E R 1 2 Using Nonverbal Behavior in Daily Interaction 359

Communicating Intimacy 360 Courtship Behavior 360 Quasi-Courtship Behavior 363 Liking Behavior or Immediacy 364 Being Close in Close Relationships 364 Mutual Influence 367

Communicating Dominance and Status 369

Managing the Interaction 373 Greeting Behavior 373 Turn-Taking Behavior 375 Leave-Taking Behavior 378

Communicating Our Identity 379 Personal Identity 380 Social Identity 382

Deceiving Others 387

A Perspective for Communicators 392

Summary 393

CONTENTS xiii

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C H A P T E R 1 3 Nonverbal Messages in Special Contexts 395

Advertising Messages 396

Political Messages 401

Teacher–Student Messages 405

Cultural Messages 408 High-Contact versus Low-Contact Cultures 408 Individualism versus Collectivism 409 High-Context versus Low-Context Cultures 410 Similarities across Cultures 410

Therapeutic Settings 411

Technology and Nonverbal Messages 414

Summary 419

REFERENCES 421

NAME INDEX 493

SUBJECT INDEX 508

xiv CONTENTS

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PREFACE

Normally, the final thing authors do in a preface is to thank those who have been instrumental in the development of their book. We’d like to depart from that tradition by starting with our heartfelt thanks to the thousands of students and instructors who have used this book and provided feedback to us during the past 40 years. More than anyone else, you are responsible for the longevity of this book. With this in mind, we undertook this eighth edition by putting what we believe to be instructor and student needs at the forefront of our writing. As with previous editions, we encourage you to let us know whether we have succeeded.

The fact that this book is coauthored is worth noting. One of us represents the field of communication and the other two social psychology. This collabo- ration, which requires the blending of two distinct perspectives, is symbolic of the nonverbal literature we report in this volume. The theory and research addressing nonverbal phenomena comes from scholars with a wide variety of academic backgrounds and perspectives—communication, counseling, psychology, psychiatry, linguistics, sociology, management, speech, and others. Understanding the nature of nonverbal communication is truly an interdisciplinary enterprise.

In revising this book, we retained the features that students and instructors valued from the previous editions while adding and changing other things that we believe will improve the book. One change that we hope students like is the inclu- sion of text boxes in each chapter. These text boxes cover important, interesting, or current topics relevant to the field of nonverbal communication. We recognize how important photographs and drawings are in a book like this, so we have con- tinued to use visual representations to aid comprehension of certain nonverbal actions. Because an increasing amount of communication is mediated by some form of technology, we have incorporated new research findings and topics in that area that are relevant to the lives of students and teachers, such as Facebook, online dating, and text messaging, to name a few.

In every new edition, we incorporate the most recent theory and research while retaining definitive studies from the past. Readers will find that some areas

xv

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of study have fewer recent references than others. This simply means that there hasn’t been a lot of recent research in that area or that the recent work, in our judgment, does not substantially change the conclusions from earlier studies. If something we know about human behavior today was first revealed in a study from 1958, we want readers to know that, and we will maintain the 1958 refer- ence. Research on a particular topic often has an ebb and flow to it. During the 1960s and 1970s, the fear that a worldwide population boom would create terrible problems spawned a lot of research on space, territory, and crowding. In recent years, far less research has been done in this area. The study of gestures, on the other hand, has gone from an area of relatively little research activity during the 1960s and 1970s to an area that is of primary interest to numerous scholars today.

Unlike past editions in which extensive bibliographies followed each chapter, we have moved all the references to one bibliography in the back of the book. Similar to previous editions, though, we have tried to retain a writing style that is scientifically accurate as well as interesting to the reader. We are honored that our book serves as both a textbook and a reference work. The Instructor’s Manual for this book provides the information and imagination necessary for effective classroom learning in nonverbal communication.

The book is divided into five parts. Part I introduces the reader to some funda- mental ideas and addresses the following questions: What is nonverbal communi- cation? How do verbal and nonverbal communication interrelate? What difference does a knowledge of nonverbal communication make to your everyday life? Are some people more skilled than others at communicating nonverbally? How did they get that way? With this general perspective in mind, Parts II, III, and IV take the reader through the nonverbal elements involved in any interaction: the environ- ment within which the interaction occurs, the physical features of the interactants themselves, and their behavior—gestures, touching, facial expressions, eye gazing, and vocal sounds. Part V begins with a chapter focused on how all the separate parts of an interaction combine as we seek to accomplish very common goals in daily life—for example, communicating who we are, communicating closeness and distance, communicating varying degrees of status and power, deceiving others, and effectively managing the back-and-forth flow of conversation. Chapter 13 examines nonverbal communication in the context of advertising, therapy, the classroom, politics, culture, and technology. Throughout the book we repeatedly point out how all interactants involved are likely to play a role in whatever behavior is displayed by a single individual—even though this perspective is not always adequately developed in the research we review.

Several helpful online tools are available for use with this text. The online Instructor’s Resource Manual includes a sample schedule, chapter objectives, discussion questions, test items, audiovisual resources, exercises, and out-of-class assignments. The companion Web site features student self-quizzes. In addition, you can choose to purchase this text with 4 months of free access to InfoTrac®

College Edition, a world-class, online university library that offers the full text of articles from almost 5,000 scholarly journals and popular publications updated daily, going back more than 20 years. Students can also gain instant access to critical-thinking and paper-writing tools through InfoWrite. Your subs