Chat with us, powered by LiveChat Of the language learning theories discussed in this chapter, which do you most agree with? Do you find that cognitive and sociocultural theories are incompat - Writeden

Of the language learning theories discussed in this chapter, which do you most agree with? Do you find that cognitive and sociocultural theories are incompatible? If not, discuss some ways drawing on different theories can help inform your instruction. 

Chapter 3 Language Learning and Teaching

Wright, W. E. (2019). Foundations for teaching English language learners: Research, theory, policy, and practice (3rd ed.). Philadelphia: Caslon Publishing.

How do students develop proficiency in a new language?

How can different theories of language learning inform effective practice?

How do you develop your own personal approach to providing effective language and content instruction for English language learners?

Guiding Questions

B. F. Skinner (Behaviorist perspective)

Children learn L1 through imitation and positive reinforcement

Common view in 1940s and 1950s

Noam Chomsky (Innatist perspective)

Children have an innate ability to learn language

Language acquisition device (LAD) enables children to figure out universal grammar and generate infinite unique utterances

Everett

Language is the handmaiden of culture

New breakthroughs in understanding the origin of language and of first and second language acquisition

First Language Acquisition Theories

Second Language Acquisition Theories

Behaviorism

Traditional cognitive approaches

The innatist perspective

The cognitive/developmental perspective (psychological theories)

The sociocultural perspective

Second Language Acquisition Theories Cognitive Approaches to SLA

Interested in what is happening inside the brain of the language learner

Direct challenge to behaviorism

Influenced by Chomsky’s theories (late 1970s)

Cognitive approaches to SLA

Monitor model (Krashen)

Interaction hypothesis (Long)

Comprehension output hypothesis (Swain)

Noticing hypothesis (Schmidt)

Processability theory (Pienemann)

Input processing model (VanPatten)

Transfer from L1 to L2

Monitor Model (Krashen, 1980s)

Second Language Acquisition Theories Cognitive Approaches to SLA

Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis

Natural Order Hypothesis

Monitor Hypothesis

Input Hypothesis

Affective Filter Hypothesis

Monitor model

Monitor Model (Krashen, 1980s)

Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis

Because of the complexity of language, the vast majority is acquired, rather than consciously learned

Second Language Acquisition Theories Cognitive Approaches to SLA

7

Language Acquisition

Subconscious process

Language Learning

Conscious process

Results in knowing about the language

Results in knowing the language

Monitor Model (Krashen, 1980s)

Natural Order Hypothesis

We acquire the parts of language in a predictable order

Natural order appears to be immune to teaching

Monitor Hypothesis

We can use learned language to monitor what we acquire and correct errors

Internal correction, self-correction

“a little language teacher in our heads”

Can make a small contribution to accuracy; acquisition is responsible for fluency and most of our accuracy

Second Language Acquisition Theories Cognitive Approaches to SLA

Monitor Model (Krashen, 1980s)

Input (Comprehension) Hypothesis

We acquire language when we obtain comprehensible input

i+1: the key to comprehensible input and acquisition

i=a student’s current level of proficiency

+1=input that is just slightly above that level

We move from i to i+1 by understanding input containing i+1

We acquire language by understanding messages, not by conscious learning and memorizing grammar rules and vocabulary

Second Language Acquisition Theories Cognitive Approaches to SLA

Monitor Model (Krashen, 1980s)

Affective Filter Hypothesis

Affective filter

Anxiety, low self-esteem, or a sense that the student is not a member of the language group

Controls how much comprehensible input gets through to the learner

A major goal in language teaching and learning is to “lower” the affective filter to maximize comprehensible input

When the filter is “down” and appropriate comprehensible input is presented (and comprehended), acquisition is inevitable.

Second Language Acquisition Theories Cognitive Approaches to SLA

Monitor Model (Krashen, 1980s)

Critiques of Krashen’s theories

Do not necessarily provide guidance about what should be directly taught and what is naturally acquired

Difficulty of identifying a strict order of acquisition of forms

The constructs i and +1 cannot be operationalized with any degree of exactness

Oversimplification of complex processes in second language acquisition (SLA)

Downplaying of the importance of production

Nonetheless, Krashen’s theories have inspired a great amount of research and led to new theories

Second Language Acquisition Theories Cognitive Approaches to SLA

Interaction Hypothesis (Long)

Interaction is essential for SLA to occur

Input is made comprehensible through modified interaction

Learners need opportunities to interact with other speakers and reach mutual comprehension

Comprehensible Output (Swain)

Comprehensible input alone is insufficient; comprehensible output is also needed to facilitate language acquisition

Speaking forces learners to confront the limits of their L2 ability and pushes them to find better ways to get their message across

Second Language Acquisition Theories Cognitive Approaches to SLA

Noticing Hypothesis (Schmidt)

Learners cannot acquire specific language features in the input unless they notice them

The importance of awareness and attention

Processability Theory (Pienemann)

Sequence in which learners acquire certain language features depends on how easy they are to process

The features at the beginning or end within a sentence are easier to process than those in the middle

Some features are acquired in the same sequence despite the different progress rates of learners; others acquired in different sequences, according to when they were processed.

Second Language Acquisition Theories Cognitive Approaches to SLA

Input Processing Model (VanPatten)

Looks at how learners make sense out of input and how they get linguistic data from it

Learners must have access to input and interaction with other speakers of L2 they are learning

Learners always process input for meaning first and rely on content words before anything else to get that meaning

Newly processed input leads to changes in the learner’s developing linguistic system

Accommodation and restructuring

Output processing: how learners make use of their acquired implicit knowledge in conversations with others

Second Language Acquisition Theories Cognitive Approaches to SLA

Transfer from First Language to Second Language

Positive transfer

Students can take the content-area knowledge and literacy skills they gained in their L1 and transfer them to their L2

Negative transfer (interference)

ex: Applying L1 syntax rules to English

Students’ knowledge and literacy skills in their L1 is a strength that facilitates academic and English language development

Teaching for transfer: enables students to draw on the knowledge they have in their L1

Second Language Acquisition Theories Cognitive Approaches to SLA

Focus on the sociocultural context surrounding the learner that facilitates the learning process

New terminology

Not yet widespread, nor consistent in usage

Second Language Acquisition Theories Sociocultural Perspectives on Language Learning and Teaching

Traditional cognitive approaches Sociocultural approaches
First/native/primary language Home language
ELL Emergent bilingual
English as a second language English as an additional language/a new language

Sociolinguistic contributions

Began in the late 1960s

Hymes’s notion of communicative competence provides the basis for communicative language teaching (CLT) and content-based instruction (CBI)

Research on nonstandard varieties of language

Inequities for speakers of these varieties in schools

Help educators understand

The dynamics of the relationship between English and home languages

The implications for structuring language and content-area instruction programs best suited for ELLs

Second Language Acquisition Theories Sociocultural Perspectives on Language Learning and Teaching

Zone of Proximal Development and scaffolding

Vygotsky’s influence of language teaching in the 1990s

Learning is a social activity (activity theory)

Knowledge is constructed through interaction and collaboration with others

Zone of proximal development (ZPD)

A domain or metaphoric space where children can reach a higher level of knowledge and performance with the support (scaffolding) of an adult or other more knowledgeable person

Second Language Acquisition Theories Sociocultural Perspectives on Language Learning and Teaching

Zone of Proximal Development and scaffolding

Different from Krashen’s input hypothesis (i+1)

The teacher and students co-construct knowledge based on interactions in a given sociocultural context

Different from Long’s psycholinguistic interaction hypothesis

The focus is on the conversations themselves through which learning occurs

Collaboration and interactions as key to language learning and teaching

Teachers’ role as skilled experts who interact and collaborate with students, and carefully plan and scaffold instruction within the ZPD of their students

Second Language Acquisition Theories Sociocultural Perspectives on Language Learning and Teaching

Language socialization research

Ochs and Schieffelin (1984)

Language socialization

the process by which individuals acquire the knowledge and practices that enable them to participate effectively in a language community

Language and cultural learning are inseparable

Teachers are not just teaching ELLs a new language but they are also socializing them into a community of English language speakers in their classes, programs, and schools

Second Language Acquisition Theories Sociocultural Perspectives on Language Learning and Teaching

Bilingual and multilingual pluralist perspectives

Four guiding principles for making decisions about policies, programming, curriculum, instruction, assessment, and accountability from a bilingual perspective (de Jong, 2011)

Striving for equity

Affirming linguistic and cultural identities

Promoting developmental bilingualism

Structuring for integration

Second Language Acquisition Theories Sociocultural Perspectives on Language Learning and Teaching

Bilingual and multilingual pluralist perspectives

Bilingual education programs

Use two languages for instructional purposes

Not all programs embrace bilingual perspectives

Bilingual perspective

Embraced by teachers working with bilinguals in any program

Considers translanguaging to be natural and normal

Monolingual/compartmentalized perspective

Reluctant to allow use of home languages in the classroom

Strict separation of languages in bilingual education

Second Language Acquisition Theories Sociocultural Perspectives on Language Learning and Teaching

Bilingual and multilingual pluralist perspectives

Holistic biliteracy framework (Escamilla et al, 2013)

Teachers place the two languages side by side for instruction and assessment and document students’ trajectories toward biliteracy.

The Bridge (Beeman and Urow, 2013)

Teachers bring the two languages together strategically and intentionally to promote cross-linguistic transfer

Translanguaging guide for educators (García et al., 2016)

Recognizes positive transfer between English and home language

Translanguaging as pedagogical practices that use bilingualism as a resource

Second Language Acquisition Theories Sociocultural Perspectives on Language Learning and Teaching

All teachers share the responsibility for helping ELLs develop their proficiency in English and their ability to use oral and written English for academic purposes across content areas

Content teachers teach lessons with both language and content objectives

ESL/bilingual teachers/specialists and content-area teachers can collaborate

In schools without designated language teachers, content teachers are responsible for the role

All Teachers Are Language Teachers

Traditional Second Language Teaching Approaches and Methods

Approaches

An overarching philosophy of second language instruction

Methods

A set of procedures for delivering second language instruction

Predominant from the 1840s to the 1940s

Based on the way Latin was traditionally taught

Students analyze and memorize rules of grammar, then translate sentences between the two languages

Not based on any theory and has no advocates, but is widely used

Traditional L2 Teaching Approaches and Methods Grammar-Translation Method

The late 1930s and early 1940s (World War II)

Influenced by behaviorism, structural linguistics

Language learning was viewed as mechanical habit formation

Dialogue memorization and drills focused on particular language structures

Students had difficulty moving from their memorized dialogues to real-life communication

Still apparent in many language teaching materials

Traditional L2 Teaching Approaches and Methods Audiolingual Method

The late 1970s and 1980s

Application of Krashen’s theories

Providing comprehensible input in an enjoyable context where students naturally acquire the language

Five stages of language acquisition

Preproduction → early production → speech emergence → intermediate → advanced

Limitations

Lacking a clear focus and guidance for teachers

Leaving too much to chance in terms of learning vocabulary and grammatical forms

Traditional L2 Teaching Approaches and Methods Natural Approach

Favored approach in the field since the 1980s

Based on the notion of communicative competence

Learning the language to actually communicate in the target language with other speakers

Emphasis on

authentic meaningful communication and learning as creative instruction

providing grammar instruction—a “focus on form”—within the communicative context of a particular academic subject

Traditional L2 Teaching Approaches and Methods Communicative Language Teaching

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A form of CLT that focuses on teaching students to successfully communicate about the content area

Continuum of content-based approaches

Bilingual, ESL, and content-area teachers with ELLs in their classes receive training in sheltered instruction

Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA)

Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP)

Traditional L2 Teaching Approaches and Methods Content-Based Instruction

Content-area instruction by ESL teachers

Language development

Sheltered instruction by content-area teachers

Making content-area concepts comprehensible to ELLs

Not designed specifically for language teaching and learning, but well suited for language classrooms

Whole language

Emphasizes teaching reading strategies and skills within the meaningful context of whole stories, poems, or other texts

Multiple intelligences

To maximize learning according to the particular set of intelligences a child may have: linguistics, logical/ mathematical, spatial, musical, kinesthetic, etc.

Cooperative learning

The use of small groups within which students collaborate to solve problems or complete academic tasks

Traditional L2 Teaching Approaches and Methods Whole Language, Multiple Intelligences, and Cooperative Learning

Developed by Paulo Freire in the 1960s

Focuses on liberating oppressed students through transformative education

Importance recognized by many educators

Helps ELLs understand and confront unequal power relations as they learn English and academic content

Rejects the “banking” model of education

Teachers simply make deposits of essential knowledge and skills into the heads of students

Involves

Problem posing, reflective thinking, knowledge gathering, and collaborative decision making

Traditional L2 Teaching Approaches and Methods Critical Pedagogy

No single method or approach is applicable to every language classroom

The context of the classroom and the needs of the students should be the starting point

Teachers can use the following guiding questions:

What are the students’ strengths and needs?

What are the instructional goals?

What is likely to be challenging about these goals for these students?

What strategies can help address these challenges?

How will you know whether these strategies are effective?

Traditional L2 Teaching Approaches and Methods Beyond Approaches and Methods

Personal approach

Teachers should try out different methods and approaches

They should be flexible and creative, drawing on their own beliefs, values, principles, and experiences to adapt the methods and approaches they use to the realities of the classroom

Core principles include:

Engage all learners in the lesson

Make learners the focus of the lesson

Provide maximum opportunities for student participation

Be tolerant of learners’ mistakes

Develop learners’ confidence

Respond to learners’ difficulties and build on them

Traditional L2 Teaching Approaches and Methods Beyond Approaches and Methods

Whether one takes a cognitive or sociocultural view of language development, researchers and educators seem to agree on the need for students to receive comprehensible input and to engage in meaningful interactions with other speakers of the target language.

Summary

When teachers know their students well and understand the sociocultural contexts, they can draw on their knowledge of language teaching and learning theories, methods, and approaches to inform their own principled approach to providing the type of learning environment that builds on their students’ strengths and addresses their unique needs.

Summary

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